[19]Status of Labour ？Employment in Vietnam（Hanoi ：Ministry of Labour ，Invalids and Social Affairs ，Statistical Publishing House ，1997），Table C3.3.0.01.
[20]The figure can only be approximate.The 1993data from the Ministry ofLabour showed total unemployment of 8.3million.In China ，the registered unemploymentrate is low ，only about 3per cent，but the number of workers who are not paidfull wages or have to stay home is large，reaching 18per cent of SOE workers.The situation in Vietnam is quite similar.Many workers continue to stay in thestate enterprises even though they are employed only part-time or are without work.So long as they are not formally laid off they are counted as employed.In somecities this figure is as high as 20per cent.In recent years ，though ，therehas been a falling unemployment rate.SeeStatistical Yearbook，1995（Hanoi ：General Statistical Office，1996），p.39；Vietnam Economic Commentary and Analysis，no.6，1994，p.29.
[21]Vietnamese News，14May 1996，p.4.According to the Labour Survey of1996，unemployment decreased considerably from 1994to 1996，down to 4per cent.Unemployment declined especially in the newly expanding cities and special economiczones ，whereas it increased in other urban areas.Status of Labour？Employmentin Vietnam，pp.66-7.
[22]Vietnamese Investment Review ，24-30October 1994，p.18.
[23]Irene Ntrlund，？Vietnamese Industry in Transition ：Changes in the TextileSectorì，in Irene Ntrlund ，Carolyn L.Gates and Vu Ca Dam （eds ），Vietnamin a Changing World （Richmond：Curzon Press ，1995），p.138.
[24]This information was gained from six weeks of visits to footwear factoriesin Shanghai and Beijing in 1995and 1996.In addition ，a series of interviewswas conducted with a variety of government officials and trade union cadres whosework is related to the leather goods industry.
[25]No government department has figures on the exact number of footwear factoriesin the country.Keen competition was felt by almost all of the factories visited.Even those which had been making steady yearly profits up till 1993saw profitsdecline.In Vietnam ，because of the competition from foreign goods，there isalso a sense of ？over-production ì。See Norlund，？Vietnamese Industry in Transitionì，p.143.
[26]Information from 1995fieldwork in Beijing.
[27]More often than not，in the older state enterprises the ratio of retireesto employees can be as high as 1：2.Since under the Chinese system the work unititself has to support the entire range of welfare of its own staff and workers，this has become a heavy burden on financially troubled firms.The government's recentpolicy is to replace this system with an entirely new one whereby all welfare servicesare centralized at the city level ，thus evening out welfare responsibilities amongall enterprises.But state enterprises which are in the red lack the funds to participatein the new program，and thus remain trapped in a vicious cycle.
[28]In the textile industry，for instance ，state-sector workers have beenmade to work at very fast rates for long hours.See Zhao Minghua and Theo Nichols，？Management Control of Labour in State-Owned Enterprises：Cases from the TextileIndustryì，The China Journal，no.36（July 1996），pp.1-21.
[29]Dorothy Solinger ，？The Chinese Work Unit and Transient Labor in the Transitionfrom Socialismì，Modern China ，vol.21，no.2（April 1995），pp.155-85.Ourfield research in Shanghai in 1995also indicated that this is an increasing trend.
[30]China Labour Bulletin [Hong Kong]，no.3，May 1994，pp.8-9.
[31]Globe and Mail [Canada]，18July 1997；China Labour Bulletin，no.37，July/August 1997，pp.13-14.
[32]Anita Chan ，？The Emerging Patterns of Industrial Relations in China andthe Rise of Two New Labour Movementsì，China Information，vol.IX，no.4（Spring1995），p.58.
[33]Institute of Labour Science and Social Affairs of the Ministry of Labour，July 1994.
[34]Vietnamese Investment Review ，22-29November 1993；70strikes were recordedin 1992-93.Also see？Vietnam Labour Law Fails to Halt Strikesì（Hanoi ：AgenceFrance Presse ，9July 1995）；and Vietnamese Trade Union ，no.3，1995，pp.27-8.
[35]Communication from the Committee for the Defence of Workers'Rights inVietnam ，France and Associated Press，Hanoi，25September 1997，referring toa union inspection report in Vietnam.
[36]According to a survey carried out by the Guangdong Provincial General TradeUnion in 1994，34.5per cent of the workers interviewed said there was no extrapay for overtime work ；and 32per cent were paid below the minimum wage （Yuegangxinxi shibao [Guangdong-Hong Kong information newspaper]，2April 1994）。A surveyin Vietnam revealed that 15per cent of foreign-funded enterprises paid employeesless than the official minimum wage of US$35per month set for Hanoi and Ho ChiMinh City （Vietnam Investment Review ，9-15January 1995，p.25）。
[37]For example，for violations of labour laws by Taiwanese and Korean-ownedfactories that make Nike shoes，see Lao dong [Labour]，19November 1997；forviolations by such factories in China ，see the Asia Monitor Research Centre report，？Conditions of Workers in the Shoe Industry in Chinaì，November 1995.This doesnot apply in China and Vietnam to some of the large capital-intensive ，high-techenterprises that are owned by Western firms ，which operate on a management philosophythat is softer on workers.See Anita Chan ，？The Emerging Patterns ì，esp.pp.45-8.
[38]The information on China comes from interviews in 1994at Beijing's ACFTUheadquarters；information on Vietnam came from the Denmark interviews of 1995.Talks with trade unionists from Indonesia and with Australian business consultantslend support to this observation，as does a report in the Far Eastern EconomicReview，22August 1996，p.63.
[39]Taiwanese capital began to flow into Vietnam earlier than from other countries.Taiwan was the major investor in Vietnam until 1997，when Singapore became thelargest ，followed by Taiwan ，Hong Kong，Japan and South Korea.The largestinvestor in the mainland of China is Hong Kong，followed by Taiwan.
[40]Gongren ribao，21May 1996，p.5.
[41]Beijing Review ，vol.38，no.20（15-21May 1995），p.18.The reportingon labour disturbances in foreign-funded firms has become more forthright.In the1980s the Party specifically banned such news from the press（Information from aShanghai researcher on labour issues）。
[42]Gongren ribao，11November 1993.Two cases were cited in this article.In one，a manager in a garment factory hired a police officer to be deputy managerwith the express purpose of controlling the workers.When the workers could no longerstand the protracted hours of overtime work ，several of them launched a protest.The policeman-turned-manager first fired the？trouble-makersì，then got his colleaguesin the police station to arrest them.They were released after the interventionof the local union.Another case involved a foreign manager who ，just before firinga batch of workers，called in the police.As each of the names of the unfortunateworkers was called，they were？accompanied ìto the gate by a policeman.In anothercase，when some workers started complaining after being owed wages for 7-8months，police were sent into the dormitory to beat up the workers'representatives （Zhuhailaodong bao [Zhuhai labour news]，24October 1994）。The use of police and privatesecurity guards with connections to the police is very prevalent in south China（based on field findings in January 1996）。One Taiwanese joint-venture firmin south China employed 100security guards for only 2，700workers （Gongren ribao，17April 1996，p.7）。
VIETNAMESE AND CHINESE LABOUR REGIMES:ON THE ROAD TO
VIETNAMESE AND CHINESE LABOUR REGIMES:ON THE ROAD TO