[Abstract] The word “euphemism” comes from the Greek, eu--means “good”, and –pheme-, “speech” or “saying”, and together it means literally “to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner”. Euphemism, as a cultural phenomenon as well as a linguistic concept, has attracted people’s attention for a long time. It has long been a topic of much interest. Generally speaking, people would use more euphemisms in communicating with the opposite sex; women would use more than men would; older people would use more than younger generations. People would more use euphemisms in "power" relations than in close relations. People with higher education would use more euphemisms. The above factors: age, sex, social status, education, etc. do not work separately. In communicating, they are interlaced with each other and guide our choice of euphemisms. Whether to use euphemisms or taboo words also depends, to a large extent, on the attitudes of participants (particularly speakers) and the purpose of conversations. The article consists of six parts. Part one explains what the meaning of euphemism is. Part two is saying the Cooperative Principle in briefly. Cooperative Principle, the cornerstone theory of pragmatics, is one of the main principles that guide people’s communication. The Cooperative Principle and its maxims can explain what the literal meaning is and its real intention in communication and ensure that in an exchange of conversation. Part three presents, the formation euphemism, namely, formal innovation, semantic innovation, rhetorical devices, and grammatical ways. Part four discusses the communicative function of euphemism is substitution, politeness, disguise, defense, etc. Part five serves as the main body of this article. Generally speaking, euphemisms violate the Quality, Quantity and Manner Maxim of the CP due to different reasons like substitution, disguise etc. And basically euphemisms observe the Relation Maxim. From the analysis, it can be also found that sometimes an euphemism can be regarded as violation of two maxims of the CP at the same time. Part six concludes the whole article.
[Key Words] Cooperative Principle; Euphemism; Communicative function
【摘 要】委婉语(euphemism)一词起源于希腊语。Eu意思是“好的”，pheme意思是“话语”，因此字面上的意思是说好听的话或用礼貌的方式说话。委婉语是一个语言学概念，同时也是一种文化现象，长久以来一直受到人们的关注。总体上讲人们在与异性进行言语交际时，要比在同性面前更多地使用委婉语，女性要比男性更多地使用委婉语，年长的人要比年青的人更多地使用委婉语。人们在“权势关系”的语境中往往要比在“亲密关系”的语境中更多地使用委婉语。受教育程度越高的人，越注意自己的言谈，因而更多地使用委婉语。上述因素年龄、性别、社会地位、教育等并不孤立存在，在交际中，他们交织在一起决定着委婉语的使用。是否使用委婉语还要考虑说话者的态度和交谈的目的。文章由六个部分组成。第一部分解释了什么是委婉语。第二部分简单列出合作原则的各项原则。它作为语用学的理论基石之一，是指导人们语言交际的原则之一。它可以很好地解释话语的字面意义和实际意义的关系，这对于交际委婉语显得尤为重要。第三部分说明委婉语的构成可以有很多种方式：形式变化，语义变化，修辞手段和语法手段。第四部分阐述了交际委婉语出于替代、掩饰、和礼貌等功能。第五部分是文章的主体，并说明委婉语出于替代、掩饰、和礼貌等原因主要违反了合作原则中的质、量和方式三个次则，基本上是遵循了合作原则中的相关原则。第六部分总结全文。
【关键字】合作原则; 委婉语; 交际功能
1. Introduction
In the Oxford Advanced Learner’s English – Chinese Dictionary the explanation of Euphemism is "(example of the) use of pleasant, mild or indirect words or phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones"[1]. And in the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English the explanation of Euphemism is "(an example of) the use of a pleasanter, less direct name for something thought to be unpleasant"[2]. For example, the man who wants to us to call him a “sanitation engineer” instead of a “garbage man” is hoping we will treat him with more respect than we presently do.
"The word 'euphemism' comes from the Greek eu meaning 'good' and pheme meaning 'speech' or 'saying', and thus means literally 'to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner'"[3]. Euphemisms have various reasons for existence. They conceal the things people fear the most—death, the dead, the supernatural. They cover up the facts of life—of sex and reproduction and excretion—which inevitably remind even the most refined people that they are made of clay, or worse. They are beloved by individuals and institutions (governments, especially) that are anxious to present only the handsomest possible images of themselves to the world. And they are imbedded so deeply in our language that few of us, even those who pride themselves on being plainspoken, ever get through a day without using them. But some people still mistake the euphemisms in the conversation by the Cooperative principle. Violating the CP, people also can continue the conversation with euphemisms, which make the author interest in attitudes of participants and the purpose of conversation. That is our body today.
2.Formation of euphemisms
2.1 Formal innovation
To avoid the emergence of certain letter or sound may achieve the effect of euphemizing. The formal innovation can hide audio-visually those words we don’t want to say or we shouldn’t say so as to achieve better outcome in communication.
2.1.1Abbreviation
Abbreviation is the shortening of a word and may be seen in the use of the British expression LADIES for ladies’ room. There also is GENTS for gentlemen’s room.
2.1.2 Apocopation
Apocopation is another form of abbreviation apparent in the use of vamp for vampire here meaning a seductive woman. And lav is for lavatory; homo is for homosexual; coca is for cocaine; bra is for brassiere.
2.1.3 Initialing
Initialing is the use of acronyms instead of their component parts as in "JC for “Jesus Christ”, BM for bowel movement"[4], "W.C for water closet, B.O for body odor, V.D for venereal disease, AIDS for acquired immune deficiency syndrome, SARS for severe acute respiratory syndrome"[5].
2.1.4 Backforming
Backforming is the substitution for one part of speech (used in shortened form) for another, as in "burgle (rob) which is derived from 'burglar'"[6].
2.1.5 Reduplication
Reduplication is the repetition of a syllable or letter of a word. Particularly common in children’s bathroom vocabulary, it substitutes "pee-pee for'piss', poo-poo for 'bowel movement'"[7].
2.1.6 Blend word
A blend word is a form of phonetic distortion in which two or more words are squeezed together both orthographically and phonetically. An example of this is "gezunda for a chamber pot, a term derived from the fact that this object 'goes under the bed'"[8].
2.1.7 Diminutive
A diminutive is the formation of a new term by nicking or shortening a name and adding a suffix indicating affection or smallness. "Heinie, for example, is the diminutive of 'hind end' and refers to the buttocks"[9].
2.2 Semantic innovation
2.2.1 Borrowing
Most obviously, euphemisms may be formed by borrowing words from other languages—terms that are less freighted with negative associations. Thus, we use Greek and Latin expressions for many bodily parts and functions. We have coined halitosis (bad breath) from the Latin (halitus) for “breath” and we have substituted micturition for the more vulgar Indo-European “Piss”. In addition, English euphemisms also borrowed a lot of scientific or academic terms, which are believed to be more euphemistic and objective than the usual terms, such as magnetic for “sexy” and perspire for “sweat” and so on.
2.2.2 Widening
Euphemisms may be made by a semantic process called widening. When a specific term becomes too painful or vivid, we move up in the ladder of abstraction. In this way, cancer becomes growth and a girdle becomes a foundation . Sometimes, in addition to widening we divide the negative connotations of a single direct term between two or more words. Instead of saying “syphilis” openly, we speak of a social disease.
2.2.3 Semantic shift
Allied to the phenomenon of widening is that of semantic shift. This is the substitution of the whole, or a similar generality, for the specific part we do not choose to discuss. We may create such metonymies (substitutions of the whole for the part) as rear end for “buttocks”. Sometimes, as in the expressions "to sleep with/go to bed with someone"[10], we use words naming the larger event in place of more precise references to the sexual relations that are part of the process.
2.3 Rhetorical devices
2.3.1 Metaphor
Euphemisms may be made by a process called metaphorical transfer, the comparison of things of one kind to things of another. The euphemisms chosen are often romanticizing, poeticizing and softening of the original words like "go to sleep; go to his long home; be home and free; rest in peace; be at rest; go to Heaven/Paradise; join one's ancestors; be gathered to one's fathers; join the immorals for die"[11], shock for random bombing, constructive destruction for severe damage, have a road to travel for have a long time to reach an agreement and etc..
2.3.2 Aposiopesis
In English, there is a kind of rhetoric called aposiopesis that can also act as the way of euphemizing. When we think we should not say something under certain conditions, we suddenly stop as when we say someone is out (of work); she is expecting (a baby); "to take precautions (against pregnancy); to depart (from this world)"[12]
2.3.3Analogy
Analogy can often be seen in the vocabularies of work. A tendency to elevate menial or unskilled jobs—sometimes substituting a grand title for a large salary—can make offal smell like a rose by promoting garbage men to sanitation engineers or even to waste--reduction managers. By implication, they become highly trained technicians and executives. Health-club staffs become fitness coordinators, and senators now have their shoes shined by the footwear maintenance engineer, formerly the Senate bootblack. Even if you are not a government official, your janitor is now your buiding maintenance engineer.
2.3.4 Understatement
Understatement displays people’s desire to make their language less painful and direct. So there is never an ugly woman in this world, she is at least plain. Teachers only tell parents that their child is a bit slow for his age, not retarded. And call senior citizen for old person. "Take other's things without permission" can be instead of "steal".
2.3.5 Periphrasis
Periphrasis is just beating around the bush. People often say euphemisms are weasel words, because people never call a spade a spade when using euphemisms. Fart is not pleasant to ear, so people call it wind from the behind. Someone wants you to go away, but he only says he will call your carriage for you. Someone living at the government expense may make you envy him, but actually he is in prison. "Many sayings about going to WC make a good use of periphrasis like wash one’s hands, powder one’s nose, spend a penny. So do the 'drop' for 'adjustment downward'[13]"
2.4. Grammatical ways
According to Bolinger, "Euphemism is not restricted to the lexicon. There are grammatical ways of toning something down”. Therefore, euphemizing should not be limited to lexical ways; it can also be achieved by grammatical ways.
2.4.1 Tense
In English, tense can lend a little euphemistic color to the expressions for something undesired. Especially when people use want, hope, think and wonder or words like that they may also make use of the tense to sound more euphemistically. For example, I wondered if you would mind helping me? or "I wondered if you could help me?"[14]. Asking help this way, people won’t feel so embarrassed if they were refused.
2.4.2 Syntactical negation
This method can lesson the painful impact of the language that is not welcomed. We say she is not pretty (Actually she is very ugly), but that is acceptable, because not pretty does not equal to “ugly”, it could be “plain” too. Not pretty has a wider range of meaning than ugly. Similar usages are as the following: I don’t think, I am afraid, I am not sure, I don't like,etc.
2.4.3 First personal pronouns
The use of first personal pronouns like we, ours, us, etc, can also make our speeches sound more euphemistic. You would feel more welcomed if you used we or our quite often. If a doctor said to you how do we feel today, you would feel very warm and comfortable, because it makes you think that this kind doctor takes your illness as mutual concern.
3 Communicative functions of euphemisms
Language is for communication, whereas euphemisms may lead to better communication. Using euphemisms can avoid being presumptuous in language communication. When we have to touch some topics that are unpleasant, we tend to choose more euphemistic expressions to refer to those painful topics so as not to hurt the hearer’s feeling. We can find the theoretical foundation for this motivation in Leech’s Politeness Principle. Euphemisms just minimize the impoliteness and maximize the politeness in communication. The functions of euphemisms are in agreement with those of Politeness Principle too, as they both offer more benefit to the hearer and leave more cost to the speaker, with the purpose that both of the two sides will feel respected and have favorable impression of each other. As politeness is usually regarded as the manifestation of human civilization, euphemism is one of the most effective strategies to display politeness while modulating interpersonal relationship in human communication.
3.1 Substitution
According to the definitions of euphemism and we know that a great number of English euphemisms serve as the substitutions for verbal taboos. The term taboo ( ta meaning “mark”, boo meaning “exceedingly”) of Polynesian origin denotes anything linguistic and nonlinguistic, which is prohibited or forbidden. Taboo refers to the situation in which a word or name can be used in a community only under special conditions, whether only by certain persons or only in certain circumstances. Just as violating a cultural taboo can be quite offensive, so is it with a verbal taboo in press conferences. The “word” has been and continues to be in most societies perceived as a powerful instrument that may evoke evil spirits, make bad things happen and instigate to violence and revolution and numerous other activities. While taboo of words occurs when a particular topic is considered valid for discussion, euphemistic expression or terms are required. So diplomatic euphemisms have a very serious reason for being. They can conceal the things people fear most —death, the dead or the supernatural. Euphemisms can also eliminate unhappiness, embarrassment and fear etc. so as to relieve people psychologically.
3.2 Politeness
Politeness is another very important function that euphemisms serve in social life. "Some of the euphemisms are used to avoid crudeness and indecency for the sake of a polite conversation."[15] Grice formulated Cooperative Principle of utterance in which the Maxim of Manner was defined as “Be perspicuous and specific; To avoid obscurity; To avoid ambiguity; To be brief and to be orderly.” The roundabout nature of euphemisms goes against the Maxim of Manner, which can only be fairly explained well by Leech’s Politeness Principle “Approbation Maxim: minimize dispraise of other, maximize praise of other”. In other words, euphemisms are to minimize impolite expressions and maximize polite expressions.
3.3 Disguise
Besides the two functions of euphemisms mentioned above, there is still another one more important function at work in euphemistic communication, namely, the Disguise Function. Here we mean that because of the vagueness of euphemisms, it has become a very important tool for political leaders or the diplomats or statesmen to distort the facts or and present a false picture of peace and prosperity and to beautify whatever the authority have done. For example, in the Iraq War, they use “Operation Iraqi Freedom” for beautifying their military invasion, “possible movement” refers to military attack, “air operation” or “air strikes” for air attack, “enter the war” to show their reluctance to fight the war etc. and we may find many such kind of these euphemisms in press conferences. The most important and ultimate function or purpose of the use of diplomatic euphemisms in press conferences is to disguise or beautify their invasive essence or other evil actions or the separation of words from truth. In American and British societies nowadays, diplomatic euphemisms are always purposely devised to disguise scandals in wars and politics, deliberately invented to beautify lowly occupations and excessively inflated to promote sales in advertisement.
4. The Cooperative Principle
Before going on, we look at two examples, as follows:
(1) "A: Can you tell me the time?
B: Well, the mail has already come.
(2) A: Are you going to John’s birthday party?
B: I’ve heard Mary is going."[16]
It seems there are some mistake in the conversations. But in fact, it is correct. The Cooperative Principle will help us understand more.
The Cooperative Principle is as follows:" Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged."[17]
According Grice, Cooperative principle is classified into four categories: quantity, quality, relation and manner. The category of quantity relates to the quantity ofinformation to be provided, and under it fall the following maxims：
浅谈英语委婉语的分类、构成方式及社会功能
反语的幽默属性和语用功能