Einstein once wrote a letter to Charlie Chaplin. He said: “Your film ‘The Modern Time’, everybody in the world can understand. You will certainly become a great man. Einstein.”
In his answer to the letter Charlie Chaplin wrote: “ I admire you even more. Your Theory of Relativity nobody in the world understands, but you have already become a great man. Chaplin.”[23]
In this story, Charlie Chaplin was clever to lend irony to amuse and escape from being outdone.
From the above examples, the conclusion can be easily reached as irony is frequently used to produce humor. In other words, the humor feature of irony could be easily found in humor stories.
6. Pragmatic functions of irony
In the former parts of this paper, we have already discussed about the relation between irony and CP, the association between irony and IP, and the connection between irony and verbal humor. Though irony seems to take flouting CP as its own duty, it acts as an assistant of IP actively. As a type of verbal humor, irony devotes itself to produce humor in people’s communications. However, what are the pragmatic functions of irony? In this section, the key to this question will be presented mainly from two major aspects: pragmatic functions of English irony and pragmatic functions of Chinese irony.
6.1 Pragmatic functions of English irony
Pragmatic functions of English irony can be stated in various ways, similar to the classification of it. In the following passage, the effort will be concentrated on the major functions of irony. Firstly, while using irony people tend to use affirmative to express critique or discontent. Secondly, irony is always used as a means to satirize. Thirdly, irony is used as an approach to be polite. Last but not the least, irony is used as an approach to be humorous.
6.1.1 Used as an affirmative to express critique or discontent
In English, irony is often used to state one’s negative attitude to something. For example:
(1) I just adore mosquitoes. [24]
(2) You are a big help! [25]
(3) You are telling stories! [26]
In example (1), “adore” actually tells us the displeasure of the speaker. It can be learned from the meaning between the lines that the speaker hates mosquitoes in fact. The sentence of example (2) is not really used to praise the “help” but to indicate, “You only do nothing to help.” The speaker of example (3) applies irony to make a mockery.
In everyday life, people tend to use irony in their speech though sometimes they may not be conscious of it. The following is another instance:
(4) This morning, I was late for work; at noon, I had my bike stolen; on the way home this afternoon, I slipped down in the street. So today, I am certainly enjoying myself. [27]
Obviously, the narrator did not enjoy himself indeed this day. With the strong discontent of the terrible experience, he expressed his displeasure by using the opposite word “enjoy”.
6.1.2 Used as a means to satirize
Irony is used to veil feelings in a subtle way. Words of praise are often found where condemnation is meant. Below are some examples:
(1) Like all the other officers at Group Headquarters except Major Danby, Colonel Cathcart was infused with the democratic spirit: he believed that all men outside Group equal, and he therefore spurned all men outside Group Headquarters with equal fervour. (Joseph Heller: Catch 22) [28]
(This passage implies that Colonel Cathcart was not democratic at all: his democratic spirit extended only to his own group; all others he treated with scorn and highhandedness.)
(2) …a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee or a ragout. [29]
The author here proposed the measure to solve the problem of starvation and overpopulation by eating or selling children from poor families. However, his real purpose was to rip off the hypocritical mask of hypocrites. Used as a means to satirize, irony helped to disclose the serious problem of the society in above example.
6.1.3Used as an approach to be polite
In daily conversation, people are apt to be polite. As an indirect expression, irony is widely applied. For example:
(1) “Have a drink?”
“All right, but not up at the bar. We will take a table.”
“The perfect father.”
(F.S. Fitzgerald Babylon Revisited) [30]
(2) “The boy has broken another glass,” said the mother.
“A fine thing!” the father replied. [31]
In example (1), the son chose the polite way of using “the perfect father” which actually referred to one who was stingy about money matter. If he complained directly to his father that “A stingy father”, the impoliteness would break the relationship between the father and son more or less. Conversely, the father in example (2) criticized the fault of his son in an indirect way. “A fine thing!” could be treated as a criticism out of goodwill.
6.1.4 Used as an approach to be humorous
In Section 5.2 of this paper, we have learned that verbal irony serves as an approach of verbal humor. Therefore, the humorous function of irony can be easily revealed. Below are some more examples for further acknowledging.
(1) Polite horse
The Bach sees Ball walking lamely, asks him: “ What’s happened?” Ball says: “ I went to the forest park to ride the horse on Sunday.” “ I’m sure that it was an unruly （难驾驭的），or the horse did not allow to ride?” “Both are not. Just the horse was very polite --- when it ran to a stockade （栅栏）at a full gallop, it stopped all of a sudden and made me leap over first.” Says Ball. [32]
(2) Taken in Twice
“What’s the matter with your hands?”
“They were bitten by the serpent（大蛇）.”
“How can it happen?”
“I went to the forest the day before yesterday. Seeing there is a snake around the tree, I picked up a stick to beat.”
“Missed the target.”
“No, what is twisted（缠绕）around the tree was a rope, while what I picked up was just a snake.” [33]
A new conception of what a polite horse is shows forth in example (1). Humor occurred when Ball understated his displeasing experience by using irony. Similarly, the embarrassment of the narrator in example (2) is well veiled in the ironic statement, which brings humor to good effect.
6.2 Pragmatic functions of Chinese irony
6.2.1 Chinese irony
Chinese irony, to some extent, is equal to the type of English irony, namely verbal irony. Generally speaking, it can be classified as five types: irony for commendation and derogation （褒贬反语），irony for satire (讽刺反语)，irony for fun （趣味反语）, irony for affection（亲热反语） and irony for emphasis（强调反语）.[34] The classification is basically in the light of the pragmatic functions of irony. The detailed demonstration of them will be continued in the following parts.
6.2.2 Pragmatic functions of Chinese irony
(i) Irony for praise and denigration
Irony for praise and denigration is to use praise instead of derogatory term, or vice versa. It is an indirect utterance that can avoid making comments in direct way. It has nothing to do with sarcasm. For instance:
凤姐道：“我那里管得这些事来？ 见识又浅，口角又笨，心肠又直率，人家给个棒槌我就认作针，脸皮又软，搁不住人家两句好话，心里就慈悲了。……”
(“I’m incapabable of running things,” she signed. “I’m too ignorant, blunt and tactless, always getting hold of the wrong end of the stick. And I’m so soft-hearted, anyone can get round me….”)[35]
Apparently, Wang Xi-feng downgraded herself as “ignorant, blunt and tactless”. However, her personality is well known as talent, quick-tongued and wise. It can be considered that irony is used to be modest in this situation.
(ii) Irony for satire
Satire plays a role of frequent feature of irony. It seems like a spoiled child to some literature writers. For example:
(1)几个“慈祥”的老板到菜场去收集一些菜叶，用盐一浸，这就是他们难得的佳肴。
(Some kind-hearted bosses go to the market and pick up some vegetable leaves, coming back and dipping them into salt water, then a god-given cate is ready for them (the women workers)) [36]
(2) 湘云笑道：“‘主雅客来勤’，自然你有些警动他的好处，他才要会你。”宝玉道：“罢，罢！我也不称雅，我乃俗中又俗的一个俗人，并不愿同这些人来往。”
(“ ‘When the host is cultured, guests frequent his house’,” quoted Hsiang-yun. “He likes seeing you, surely, because he can learn something from you.”
“Don’t call me cultured,” begged Pao-yu. “I’m the most vulgar of the vulgar herd, and I’ve no desire at all to mix with such people.”) [37]
In example (1), the author lent “kind-hearted” to ridicule the bosses who treated the women workers niggardly. In example (2), Pao-yu laughed at himself as “the most vulgar of the vulgar herd”, ironically.
(iii) Irony for fun
Irony for fun refers to the one that may create a relaxed atmosphere. For example:
这个“四十条”去年以来不吃香了，现在又“复辟”了。
(These forty articles went out of vogue last year but are now staging a “come back”.) [38]
Literally, “come back” is an expression of censure. But here it stands for a new starting of the forty articles. By using this word, the speech run smoothly under the light air.
(iv) Irony for affection
Irony is sometimes used to express strong affection. To make advances to others, people can use irony as a support. For example:
几个女人有点失望， 也有些伤心，各人在心里骂着自己的狠心贼。
(Disappointed and rather upset, each woman was secretly laying the blame on her heartless brute of a husband.) [39]
Seemingly, these women were blaming their husbands. Actually, that is not the case. They loved their husbands so much that irony was used to manifest their real affection indirectly by the author.
(v) Irony for emphasis
Irony can be approved in the following example that it can emphasize the opposite meaning.
Example:
我于是日日盼望新年，新年到，闰土也就到了。好容易到了年末，有一日，母亲告诉我，闰土来了，我便飞跑的去看。
（I looked forward every day to New Year, for New Year would bring Runtu. At last the end of the year came, and one day Mother told me that Runtu had come, and I flew to see him.）[40]
Here “好容易” can be easily understood as its real meaning “好不容易”.People can catch its meaning as this is an common expression in Chinese, say, “好不高兴”means “好高兴”，and so on.
6.3 The comparison between English irony and Chinese irony
There are both similarities and differences between English irony and Chinese irony. The similarities lie in some aspects. They are both used for satirizing, amusing and producing humor. It seems that the differences count much more than the similarities.
The differences between English irony and Chinese irony mainly lie in four points as follows.Firstly, the classification of English irony differs from that of Chinese irony. The four major types of irony in English are verbal, dramatic, situational and comic. To some extent, Chinese irony is included in English irony as verbal irony. Secondly, English irony depends on context to a larger extent while Chinese irony simply counts on words. Besides, irony for affection turns out to appear more frequently in Chinese irony than in English. Last but not the least, irony for emphasis can be regarded as a unique feature of Chinese irony since it could not be found in English.
7. Conclusion
As stated, the pragmatic functions of English irony are as follows: used as a means to express critique or discontent, used as a means to satirize, used as an approach to be polite, used as an approach to be humorous. Meanwhile, the pragmatic functions of Chinese irony are presented as: irony for praise and denigration, irony for satire, irony for fun, irony for affection and irony for emphasis.
From the above discussion in this paper, we can come to a conclusion that the major pragmatic functions of irony could be stated as humorous functions. In a broad sense, the humorous functions may be regarded as light humorous functions and heavy humorous functions. The function to be humorous could be considered as one breach of the humorous functions. The light humorous functions include the function to be polite, the function to be humorous, irony for fun, etc. On the other hand, the function for satire serves as a heavy humorous function. To sum up, the main feature of irony is humor feature.
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